"Part of speech presentation" (Лингвистика)

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Parts of speech. Various approaches to their classification. 

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In grammar, a part of speech   is a category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items) that have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar syntactic behavior (they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences), sometimes similar morphological behavior in that they undergo inflection for similar properties and even similar semantic behavior. Commonly listed English parts of speech are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection, numeral, article, and determiner.

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The parts of speech are classes of words, all the members of these classes having certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of other classesThe problem of word classification into parts of speech still remains one of the most controversial problems in modern linguistics. 
There are four approaches to the problem:
Classical (logical-inflectional)
Functional
Distributional
Complex

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The classical parts of speech theory goes back to ancient times. It is based on Latin grammar. According to the Latin classification of the parts of speech all words were divided dichotomically into declinable and indeclinable parts of speech. This system was reproduced in the earliest English grammars. The first of these groups, declinable words, included nouns, pronouns, verbs and participles, the second – indeclinable words – adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. it cannot be applied to the English language because the principle of declinability/indeclinability is not relevant for analytical languages
The classical parts of speech theory 

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A functional approach to the parts of speech
New approach to the problem was introduced in the 19 century by Henry Sweet. He took into account the peculiarities of the English language. This approach may be defined as functional. He resorted to the functional features of words and singled out nominative units and particles. To nominative parts of speech belonged noun-words (noun, noun-pronoun, noun-numeral, infinitive, gerund), adjective-words (adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participles), verb (finite verb, verbals – gerund, infinitive, participles), while adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection belonged to the group of particles.

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A distributional approach to the parts of speech classification can be illustrated by the classification introduced by Charles Fries. He established a classification of words based on distributive analysis, that is, the ability of words to combine with other words of different types. At the same time, the lexical meaning of words was not taken into account. . In this way, he introduced four major classes of words and 15 form-classes.

It turned out that his four classes of words were practically the same as traditional nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. What is really valuable in Charles Fries’ classification is his investigation of 15 groups of function words (form-classes) because he was the first linguist to pay attention to some of their peculiarities.

A distributional approach to the parts of speech

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Complex approach to the parts of speech
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated according to three criteria: semantic, formal and functional. This approach may be defined as complex. The semantic criterion presupposes the grammatical meaning of the whole class of words (general grammatical meaning). The formal criterion reveals paradigmatic properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of the words, their specific inflectional and derivational features. The functional criterion concerns the syntactic function of words in the sentence and their combinability. 
Thus, when characterizing any part of speech we are to describe: 
a) its semantics; 
b) its morphological features; 
c) its syntactic peculiarities.

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The 8 parts of speech

Nouns
A noun is a word that names a person, place, concept, or object. Basically, anything that names a “thing” is a noun, whether you’re talking about a basketball court, San Francisco, Cleopatra, or self-preservation.
Nouns fall into two categories: common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are general names for things, like planet and game show. Proper nouns are names or titles for specific things, like Jupiter and Jeopardy!
There is also a classification into countable and uncountable.
The noun has categories of gender, number and case.

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Pronouns


Pronouns are words you substitute for specific nouns when the reader or listener already knows which specific noun you’re referring to.
You might say, “Jennifer was supposed to be here at eight,” then follow it with “She’s always late; next time I’ll tell her to be here a half hour earlier.”
Instead of saying Jennifer’s name three times in a row, you substituted she and her, and your sentences remained grammatically correct. 
There are several groups of pronouns in English:
Personal and reflexive: he, his, his; she, her, hers, I, my, mine.
Reflexive: myself, herself, himself, ourselves.
Demonstrative: this, that, those, these.
Interrogative: who, what, which, whose, whom.
Defining: every, all, each, everybody, everyone, both, either, other, another.
Indefinite and Negative): some, any, no, none, one, many, much, little, few.

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Adjectives 

An adjective is a part of speech denoting a feature of an object, person, or phenomenon. 
By the nature of the attribute, all adjectives can be qualitative into relative ones. 
According to the principle of word formation, they can be simple, derived and compound.
Adjectives also have degrees of comparison: positive degree, comparative degree и superlative degree.
Examples: beautiful, nice, tall, happy, big – bigger – the biggest, good – better – the best.

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Verbs
A verb is a part of speech that denotes an action or state. Depending on the meaning and role in the sentence, verbs can be notional, semi-auxiliary, auxiliary. All English verbs are divided into regular and irregular verbs.

Non-personal forms of the verb: 
Infinitive: I want to live abroad; It is important to study foreign languages.
Gerund: I enjoy swimming; He is looking forward to moving back to Japan.
Participle:
Participle I (V+ing) – This situation is humiliating; He ran shouting something.
Participle II – Published in 1900, the story was adapted into a film in 1939; She looks annoyed.

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An adverb is a part of speech that indicates the nature of an action and answers the questions: "How? Where? When? Why? In what manner?".
Adverbs are also divided into groups: adverbs of place , time , mode of action , frequency , degree.

An adverb is a word that describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb. 
I entered the room quietly.
Quietly is describing how you entered (verb) the room.
A cheetah is always faster than a lion.
Always is describing how frequently a cheetah is faster (adjective) than a lion.

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Prepositions

Prepositions tell you the relationships between other words in a sentence.
You might say, “I left my bike leaning against the garage.” In this sentence, against is the preposition because it tells us where you left your bike.
Here’s another example: “She put the pizza in the oven.” Without the preposition in, we don’t know where the pizza is.

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Conjunctions 

Conjunctions make it possible to build complex sentences that express multiple ideas.
“I like marinara sauce. I like alfredo sauce. I don’t like puttanesca sauce.” Each of these three sentences expresses a clear idea. There’s nothing wrong with listing your preferences like this, but it’s not the most efficient way to do it.
Consider instead: “I like marinara sauce and alfredo sauce, but I don’t like puttanesca sauce.
In this sentence, and and but are the two conjunctions that link your ideas together.

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Articles

A pear. The brick house. An exciting experience. These bolded words are known as articles.
Articles come in two flavors: definite articles and indefinite articles. And similarly to the two types of nouns, the type of article you use depends on how specific you need to be about the thing you’re discussing.
A definite article, like the or this, describes one specific noun.
Did you buy the car?
From the above sentence, we understand that the speaker is referring to a specific previously discussed car.
Now swap in an indefinite article:
Did you buy a car?
See how the implication that you’re referring back to something specific is gone, and you’re asking a more general question?

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Figuring out parts of speech
Sometimes, it’s not easy to tell which part of speech a word is. Here are a few easy hacks for quickly figuring out what part of speech you’re dealing with:
If it’s an adjective plus the ending –ly, it’s an adverb. Examples: commonly, quickly.
If you can swap it out for a noun and the sentence still makes sense, it’s a pronoun. Example: “He played basketball.” / “Steve played basketball.”
If it’s something you do and you can modify the sentence to include the word do, it’s a verb. Example: “I have an umbrella.” / “I do have an umbrella.”
If you can remove the word and the sentence still makes sense but you lose a detail, the word is most likely an adjective. Example: “She drives a red van.” / “She drives a van.”
And if you’re ever really stumped, just look the word up. Dictionaries typically list a word’s part of speech in its entry, and if it has multiple forms with different parts of speech, they are all listed, with examples.
That brings us to another common issue that can confuse writers and language learners.

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When a word can be different parts of speech
Just like y is sometimes a vowel and sometimes a consonant, there are words that are sometimes one part of speech and other times another. Here are a few examples:
Work 
“I went to work” (noun).
“I work in the garden” (verb).
Well 
“She paints very well” (adverb).
“They are finally well now, after weeks of illness” (adjective).
“I dropped a penny into the well” (noun).
But 
“I cooked breakfast and lunch, but Steve cooked dinner” (conjunction).
“I brought everything but the pens you asked for” (preposition).
And sometimes, words evolve to add forms that are new parts of speech. One recent example is the word adult. Before the 2010s, adult was primarily a noun that referred to a fully grown person. It could also be used as an adjective to refer to specific types of media, like adult contemporary music. But then, at right about the turn of the 2010s, the word adulting, a brand-new verb, appeared in the internet lexicon. As a verb, adulting refers to the act of doing tasks associated with adulthood, like paying bills and grocery shopping.

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Open and closed word classes

The parts of speech fall into two word classes: open and closed.
The open word classes are the parts of speech that regularly acquire new words. Language evolves, and usually, that evolution takes place in nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. In 2022, new words added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary included dumbphone (noun), greenwash (verb), and cringe (adjective). 
The closed word classes are the parts of speech that don’t readily acquire new words. These parts of speech are more set in stone and include pronouns, conjunctions, articles, and prepositions.

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The formation of parts of speech in English
Let's consider some methods of word formation:
Conversion rate. This method is often applied to nouns and adjectives, and you can make a verb out of them without changing either the spelling or pronunciation. 
Example: master (owner) – to the master (to manage), water (water) – to water (pour), house (house) – to house (post), empty (empty) – to empty (devastate), white (white) – to white (to whitewash)

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The word structure
Using this method, you can form a new one from two nouns by simply combining them.
For example: airfield – аэродром (air – воздух, field – поле), schoolday – школьный день (school – школа, day – день), birthplace – место рождения (birth – рождение, place – место).  
If two nouns follow in a row, then the first one automatically becomes an adjective that describes the noun following it. 
For example: two year guarantee – двухлетняя гарантия (two years – два года, guarantee – гарантия), shop window – витрина (shop – магазин, window – окно), horse races – лошадиные бега (horse – лошадь, races – бега).

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Affixation
This is the way in which you can immediately recognize what part of speech is in front of us or form a new word, translate it from one part of speech to another. Here are the most common suffixes for some parts of speech: